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Instructional Methods in Computer Science

Individualized Instruction

Meaning

Individualized instruction is a teaching method which requires individual student participation in a learning activity. It is a student centered teaching procedure. Individualized instruction is a method of instruction in which content, instructional materials, instructional media, and pace of learning are based upon the abilities and interests of each individual learner.

Definitions of Individualized Instruction on the Web:

"Instruction of a student based on his or her unique learning style."

"One of the key view of special education. The specific instruction and types of services provided to the student is modified to fit the student and wholly depends on the educational needs of the student."

"Curriculum content and instructional materials, media, and activities designed for individual learning. The pace, interests, and abilities of the learner determine the curriculum."

Principles of individualized procedures

·         All learning is ultimately an individual process

·         All learning procedures regardless of the type are related to specific goals of the individual learner

·         When the learner sees that a learning activity is of personal value then the learner is strongly motivated

·         Programmed learning and CAI improves and accelerates self directed learning

·         Individual learning procedures place major responsibility on the student. Specific skills are learned only through individual effort

·         They help the teacher meet the varying needs of students

Types of individualized procedures

            Many different options are available as learning assignments and activities for individualizing instruction. According to Brownetal(1985), there are 18 individualizing procedures. They are:

·         Reading: Text books, newspapers, reference books, nonfiction books, encyclopedias, almanacs, pamphlets, atlases, anthologies, dictionaries

·         Listening: Prerecorded audio-tapes, phonograph records, live lectures or music

·         Viewing: 8mm or 16mm films, video tapes and discs, sound and silent filmstrips, flat pictures (sometimes with ausio tapes), charts, displays, bulletin board, slide and transparencies, models(some of them are of the working type), television and computer programs, specimens, real things, microscopic slides, microfilms, and binoculars for star gazing or bird watching

·         Visiting: Museums, institutes, factories, other schools or universities, businesses, planetariums, zoos, newspaper offices

·         Writing: Analyses, reports, letters, scripts, self or teacher prepared tests, newsletters, questionnaires

·         Interviewing: Other students or teachers or individuals in community either face to face or by telephone

·         Discussing and Debating: In small, medium or large groups

·         Experimenting and researching: Gathering data in search of solution to problems, ordering the data, drawing conclusions

·         Constructing: Devices, instruments, models

·         Illustrating: Drawing, producing schematics

·         Photographing: Flat pictures, transparencies, 8mm or 16mm films, video tape recordings

·         Gaming and simulating: Inventing, adopting or using already invented games, modeling, simulating reality

·         Collecting, classifying, displaying: Realia, specimens, stamps

·         Dramatizing: Extemporaneously or in planned or scripted ways

·         Reporting: Orally in writing or in visual or audio visual forms

·         Demonstrating: Processes and operations, elements

·         Interning or working: As on the job experience sometimes for pay

·         Operating: Developing skill, practicing

Each of the individualized instructional procedures may have a different motivational effect on the learner. It is the teacher’s responsibility to determine how each method can best be employed.

The coming of computer- and Internet-based education holds the promise of an enormous increase in the use of individualized instruction methodology

Plans for Individualized Instruction

Basically, individualized instruction is instruction that considers the needs of the students. Ideally, the students would control the pace at which they progress through instruction and the materials they use would be suited to their cognitive skills and learning styles (Gagne et al., 1992).These plans provide evidence that there were alternatives to traditional instruction available.

Because they involved self-directed as well as teacher-led instruction, these plans provided support for the continued development of well-designed materials and instruction.

Mary Ward and Frederic Burk, San Francisco State Normal School

            Ward and Burk created a set of self-instructional materials that allowed learners to progress at their own pace with a minimum of teacher direction

            They were stopped by California Court ruling that only the State Board of Education could publish printed instructional materials.

Winnetka Plan: Carleton W. Washington and Helen Parkhurst

Washington and Parkhurst were associates of Burk's and, while Washington was superintendent of the Winnetka, Illinois public schools, they created the Winnetka Plan.

The Winnetka Plan included:

• self-paced, self-instructional, self-corrective workbooks
• diagnostic placement tests in which learners were tested to determine which goals and tasks they should tackle
• self-tests that students could take themselves to determine if they were ready for testing by the teacher
• a simple record-keeping system which tracked the progress of each student

Only after performing satisfactorily on the teacher-administered test could a student go on to new material.

The two main tasks for faculty were:

• to analyze course content into specific objectives
• to develop the plan of instruction to allow each learner to master the objectives at their own rate

Group activities were not overlooked: approximately half of each morning and afternoon were devoted to activities such as music, plays, student government, and open forums for discussion. Under the Winnetka plan, "classrooms became laboratories or conference rooms, and teachers became consultants or guides."

The Dalton Plan: Helen Parkhurst

            The Dalton Plan was originally developed by Parkhurst to use in an ungraded school for crippled children.

            The Dalton Plan included "Contract learning." Having agreed to a contract, students were free to complete them at their own pace. No new contracts were permitted until the current one was satisfactorily completed.

            Helen Parkhurst, after experimentation in her own one-room school with Maria Montessori, developed what she termed the Laboratory Plan. It called for teachers and students to work together toward individualized goals. The Laboratory Plan was put into effect as an experiment in the high school of Dalton, Massachusetts, in 1916. From this beginning, the Laboratory Plan and The Dalton School eventually took their names and their mission.

Programmed Learning

Introduction

Programmed learning is an educational innovation and auto instructional device. It has been coined from principles of operant learning by B.F.Skinner. He claimed that desirable changes can be brought out by giving a continuous feedback or reinforcement for desired responses. It is also named as programmed instruction and instructional technology.

Characteristics of Programmed learning

• It is a teaching method and not a test. It helps the students in learning a material
• It is not an audio visual aid. It is a part of educational technology
• It is not the solution of educational problems. It is a new instructional strategy for the behaviour modification of the learner
• It cannot replace the teacher because only an effective teacher can prepare a good programme
• It requires more creativity and imaginative efforts to develop highly individualized instruction.

Principles of Programmed learning

1. Principle of small steps

            The subject matter is broken down into a sequence of small steps. A student can take a step at a time.

2. Principle of active responding

            A student learns better if he actively participates in the lesson and he learns best if he is actively responding while learning. It is an integral part of learning.

3. Principle of immediate confirmation

            The student learns best if his response is confirmed immediately. The confirmation provides the reinforcement to the learner.

4. Principle of self pacing

            In programmed learning each student proceeds at his own rate. This principle is based on individual differences in the process of teaching and learning.

5. Principle of evaluation

            It helps students to learn and grasp the material given in each frame. The aim of this arrangement is not to test the student but to improve the quality of programmed materials through checking the number of errors at each step.

Types of programming

The following are the types of programming:

1. Linear Programming of B.F.Skinner
2. Branched programming of Norman Crowder
3. Mathetics programming of Thomas F.Gilbert

Linear Programming

In the linear style, the subject matter is divided into very small steps, each of which is called a frame. The frames are numbered. The student is allowed to cover one frame at a time, responding to each one by one, getting feedback and going on in a straight line fashion. Every learner goes through the same series of tasks. But individual students may complete the programme at different rates according to their respective abilities.

When the student has given his response, he confirms it with the correct response provided in the programme. There is provision for self pacing. Therefore, the linear programmed learning has all the principles mentioned below:

·         Information given in small steps

·         Active responding by the student at each step

·         Immediate knowledge of results

·         Self pacing

 

Branched Programming

The frame size and the amount of information given is larger that that of linear programme. The student starts by multiple choice questions designed to test the student’s learning of the material.

If the student chooses the correct answer, he is told that his answer is correct and he is led to the next learning item.

If the answer is wrong he has to go through a discussion where he is told what was wrong with the answer. He is then taken to the original item and allowed to select the right response again.

 

Techniques in Branch Programme

            There are two techniques in which branch programme can be arranged. They are called Backward Branching and Forward Branching.

Backward Branching

            The learner goes from first frame to second frame only if he makes correct response. If he makes an error, he is led to a remedial frame where he is given some more help in understanding the concept and in solving the solution by a better logic. He will then be directed to the original frame number one. He reads again, answers correctly in the light of remedial material received earlier. So the learner goes through the same frame twice, once before the remedial material and secondly after the remedial material.

Forward Branching

            In this type, whether the learner is making correct response or wrong response, he will always be going to new pages, progressing from page to page. When he makes a wrong choice, he is directed to a remedial frame where his mistakes are fully explained, probably followed by another parallel question, from which he goes to the next frame in the main stream.

 
 

Steps in programming

Topic selection

            The programmer should select the most familiar topic, otherwise he has to take the help of the subject expert. He should select a specified content or a small area of the subject matter.

Content outline

            Its outline may be prepared which should cover all the materials on plans to teach. For this, the programmer has to refer to and examine relevant books and materials.

Instructional objectives

            It involves both task description and task analysis. Task description is the description of terminal behaviours which the learner is expected to achieve. Task analysis is the series of component behavious that he is required to acquire in the process of achieving terminal behaviour.

Entry skill

            The learner should have some pre requisite ability and skill to understand properly the new programme. This programme cannot be prepared without proper assessment of the entry skill.

Presentation of the material

            Suitable format is to be decided for presenting the material from the educational point of view. Then the programmed material should be presented in a sequence of frames arranged as step towards terminal behaviour.

Student participation

            Student participation is facilitated by presenting the programme in an interesting format.

Terminal behaviour test

It is known as performance assessment. This provides the feedback to the programme and shows the effectiveness of the instructional materials.

Revision

            The programme may be revised on the basis of feedback. The instructional materials may be edited and modified according to the needs and requirements of the pupil.

Benefits

• To help students to learn by doing
• To provide the situation to learn at his own pace
• To help student to learn without the presence of a teacher
• To present the content in a controlled manner and in logically related steps
• To study by himself and assess his own performance by comparing it with the given answer.

Conclusion

            It is self instructional material developed on the basis of psychological principles of teaching-learning. A rapid learner can cover the material quickly and the slow learner may proceed at his own pace. The analytical thinking and self direction of learners are also promoted through it.

Computer Assisted Instruction

Introduction

            Computer-assisted instruction is a method of using computer technology in teaching and learning. Computer-assisted instruction (CAI) is an interactive instructional technique whereby a computer is used to present the instructional material and monitor the learning that takes place.

Computer Assisted Instruction

·         Computer Assisted Instruction is nothing but giving instructions with the help of computers.

·         In CAI, the activity of the learner is the most important attribute.

·         CAI is nothing but learning with computers.

·         It can be used to impart formal and non-formal education at all levels and also in all areas

·         CAI has been developed from the formal principles of Programmed Instruction

·         It is one of the types of Individualized Instruction

·         CAI uses a combination of text, graphics, sound and video in enhancing the learning process

Origin of CAI

            The origin of CAI may be traced in two different stages.

¨      The first stage of CAI is the development of a small commercial computer in the census Bureau in 1952, in U.S.A and

¨       The very first attempt in CAI has taken place around 1961, after the development of PLATO (Programmed Logic for Automatic Teaching Operations) by the university of Illinois.

¨      The second stage of development in CAI has taken place after the development of computerized tutorials in arithmetic and reading for elementary school children by Patrick Suppes of Stanford university in 1966. He is considered to be the Father of CAI

Steps involved in development of CAI package

            The sequence of the steps involved in the development of instructional materials may change according to the nature of the problem. The general steps involved in the development of software can be:

1. Analysis Phase

2. Design Phase

3. Programming Phase

4. Validation Phase

Analysis Phase:

Selection of a unit: The computer should be used creatively and judiciously since it demands more money resource than any other media.. If the teacher decided to write a programme for CAI, she should bear in mind: Why use a computer (CAI) approach. There should be a rationale for the use of a computer.

Content Analysis: The process of deciding the topic into sub-topics or sub-points is called content analysis.

Entry Behaviour: The analysis of the target group is very essential. Once the content and target group are analyzed, a teacher can sequence the concepts so that they are logically arranged. The specifications of the learner’s entry bahaviour are to be finished.

Specification of objectives: It is like preparing a summary of the learning process in terms of the competencies to be learnt.

Development of evaluation measures: A statement of objectives describes the capability to be developed. If this description is clear, it helps us to design a test to assess how well the learner has acquired that capability.

Design Phase:

            The analysis phase is followed by a creative phase, which is the design phase.

Development of modular structure: The whole package would be a set of various inter related modules. Though they are inter related, one can select modules to be learnt or the pre test may help the learner in selecting appropriate modules.

Development of flow chart: The flow chart becomes the link between the information and the screen presentation. It is a chart showing the relationship between the events, activities, concepts.

Designing frames: A module consists of a series of frames. Some of these will be criterion frames, teaching frames and some testing frames.

Criterion frames: It acts as a check that the teaching frames achieve their objectives. This is a test of the learner’s knowledge.

Teaching frames: It contains all the information needed to complete the course.

Testing frames: These can be in the form of prompt or cue.

Preparing screens with reference to actual programming:

            Once the frames are designed, they should be converted in a manner useful for screen display. Therefore, screen layout forms are designed at this stage.

The essential characteristics for screen display includes

• Screen layouts
• Text
• Graphics
• Timing
• Animation
• Sound
• User control

Programming Phase

            The course ware author may perform the programming task or it could be performed by team of programmers. Generally, a teacher who does the instructional design of the CAI package may not possess programming expertise. Such a teacher is provided programming facility by special tools. These tools are called authoring tools.

            Some fundamental features must be provided by any authoring system:

• Present text and questions on the screen
• Accept responses entered using a keyboard
• Analyze the responses
• Store details of responses and values of counters on a file
• Branch to other parts of the learning programme
• Provide feedback
• Interface with sub routines written in computer programming language

Validation Phase

            It means testing the whole package. The following factors should be considered while evaluating the package:

• Content
• Accuracy
• Presentation
• Adherence to presentation standards and guidelines
• Use of the authoring language
• Statistics

It should be followed by evaluation by experts, testing, pilot study and field tryout.

CAI Programmes (Modes of CAI)

            There are several kinds of CAI programmes that are available and the important ones are as follows

1. Drill and Practice
2. Tutorial Mode
3. Simulation Mode
4. Discovery Mode
5. Gaming Mode

Drill and Practice

            In this mode, the computer presents the learner with a series of exercises which he or she does by giving some responses. It provides the learner some feedback about the answer (i.e. responses) in the form of a congratulatory message if it is right, or a corrective comment if it is wrong. Thus, CAI provides drill and practice with repetition at a pace that can be controlled by the learner. The computer proceeds only when mastery is achieved by the learner.

Tutorial Mode

            In the tutorial mode, as in programmed instruction, information is presented in small bits followed by questions. The learner’s response is analyzed by the computer and appropriate feedback is made available to him/her.

Simulation mode

Learning experiences regarding real life systems or phenomena are provided to the learners through this mode. The thing that cannot be brought into a classroom (real or imaginary) can be represented by simulations.

E.g: Aircraft, Fire safety

Discovery mode

            This mode uses inductive approach to learning wherein the problems are presented and the learner solves them through trial and error.

Gaming mode

            In gaming mode teaching can be imparted, through play or game.

Basic Assumptions of CAI

·         CAI can be provided simultaneously even for 4000 students and thereby it facilitates individualized instruction

·         Immediate feedback can be provided to the learners

·         Teachers can use the data in making the best teaching strategy for the learner

·         It is suitable for all types of teaching and learning activities

Benefits of CAI

o   Self pacing -allow students to proceed at their own pace

o   Reteaching and reinforcing

o   Personalized feedback of instruction

o   Multimedia helps to understand difficult concepts through multi sensory approach

o   Simulations

o   Acquiring knowledge through games

o   Great motivator

o   One-to-one interaction

o   Effective use of educational technology for drill and practice of basic skills

o   Students learn more, and more rapidly in CAI courses

o   Students feel more successful and motivated to learn and have increased self

Confidence and self esteem

o   Teachers and administrators can use computers and information technologies to improve their roles in the education process.

Limitations of CAI

CAI has some limitations also, even though it has lot of advantages. They are

1. Lack of human qualities
2. Restricted text displays
3. Limited sensitivity to needs
4. A poor substitute for actual experience
5. Software limitations
6. Hardware limitations
7. Over use of multimedia may divert the attention from the content
8. Lack of infrastructure

Role of the teacher in CAI

1. In CAI the role of the teacher has changed from the traditional method of delivering lectures to a supervisor or a guide
2. No computer can replace a teacher, as teacher’s role is very important in the process of teaching and learning
3. Infact the CAI will definitely increase the scope and quality of contribution of teachers in the society
4. In CAI, the teacher has to play many roles like computer engineer, lesson writer and a system operator.

Computer-managed instruction

Meaning

Computer-managed instruction is an instructional strategy whereby the computer is used to provide learning objectives, learning resources, and assessment of learner performance. It refers to the use of a computer system to manage information about learner performance and learning resources options.

Computer-managed instruction (CMI) aids the instructor in instructional management without actually doing the teaching.

Computer in Teaching Learning process

In computer managed instructions, the computer gathers, stores and manages information to guide students through individualized learning experience.

            At the computer is being used in administrative and management, these days, such type of use of a computer is known as computer based learning, for example in distributing the salaries of the teachers and other employers.

           

Computer is not used directly in teaching – learning process, but it used as an helper in teaching learning process. If a teacher is made free by assigning his other duties to the computer such as administrative, managemental activities, then he can utilize his spare time in an effective manner in the classroom.

Uses of computers in Education

            Computers are used successfully not only in the classroom of schools and colleges but also in the offices.

Administrative uses

            Many educational institutions computerize nearly all their operations from mailing labels to staff payroll. Computerizations of administrative functions are:

1. Office Applications

            In the offices, computers are used in filing, typing/word processing, preparing mailing for dispatch and making labels of addresses.

2. Library Applications

            In the library, computers are used for retrieval of bibliographic information, cataloguing, circulation, purchasing of books, journals etc., searching books and charging fines from students. Also databases can be prepared of the different users of library.

3. Financial Applications

            Computers are used for making budgets, auditing, accounts receivable/payable, general ledger, purchase order generation, salary schedule analysis and maintenance of student’s fees records etc.

4. Student Applications

            Computers are used to make time table for students, report cards, grade information, maintenance of attendance, students’ health and demographic records, result processing, fees statements, railway concessions cards, bio-data of students etc.

5. Personnel Applications

            Computers are used to prepare payrolls of workers, maintenance of personnel records staff assignments, leave records of teachers, health records, tax information and reporting, issuing circular to teaching and non teaching staff, maintaining bio data of teachers and non teaching staff.

6. Research and Planning Applications

            Computers are used in various research and planning applications such as test item analysis, project planning and evaluation, budget forecasting, feasibility of opening new courses etc. In well equipped modern educational institutions like IGNOU most of these functions are performed through computers.

Methods of Teaching

Introduction

It is in fact, not a well planned syllabus but methods of teaching which makes the teaching impressive. It is true that teaching is an inborn act but by practice teacher can train himself. A method good for one class at one time for certain topic may be a complete failure at another time in another class and for another topic. There are few methods available:

·         Lecture

·         Demonstration

·         Problem solving

·         Project method

·         Scientific method

·         Analytic method

·         Synthetic method

Lecture Method

The lecture method has been the earliest known methods of instruction. Books were not available then and manuscripts were rare and hence lecture method was used for instruction.

Lecture means teaching a lesson in the form of speech or talk. The teacher delivers a lecture on a particular topic and the students keep listening in an idle manner.

Characteristics of lecture method

¨      Useful for higher classes

¨      It is easy, brief and attractive for teacher

¨      More information can be given in a short time period

¨      More number of students can listen and prepare notes

¨      The argumentative flow of the subject is restricted

¨      The flow of thought is maintained and the teacher  tells about many new things

¨      It is a convenient method for the teacher

¨      The teacher is always alert

Advantages

¨      The proper orientation of the subject can be presented. The general outline of the scope of the subject can be brought out.

¨      Many facts can be presented in a short time in an impressive way

¨      It is possible to stimulate interest in the subject

¨      Spoken word has greater weight than books

¨      The language may be made suitable to all the members of the audience

¨      It facilitates inter-disciplinary approach to topics

Limitations

¨      It is waste of time to repeat the matter already present in books.

¨      The teacher to make the lecture impressive may care more for manner and style rather than matter

¨      If the lecturer is very fast, the pupils cannot easily take notes and follow the lecture

¨      Lectures decrease the initiative of pupils and their problem solving attitude

¨      Dictation would become prominent in the course of lectures

To make a lecture effective:

¨      Matter of the lecture should be systematized and summary developed at each stage

¨      The objective, the outline of the lecture should be emphasized

¨      The speed must be measured and considered

¨      Important points must be emphasized by loud and impressive statements

¨      The manner of presentation should be cheerful

¨      Pronunciation must be as far as possible approaching the correct one

¨      Pupils should be encouraged to take notes

Suggestions

¨      Make use of the black board where and whenever required

¨      Proper teaching aids should be used

¨      More stress should be laid on the principles of generalization

¨      The students should be given work to do so that they make use of their previous knowledge and acquire more knowledge on basis of their hardwork and experience

¨      In order to keep them active, questions should be put up to the students from time to time

Demonstration method

In this method, the spoken word is suppplemented with demonstration using varied aids resulting in auditory and visual learning. It involves getting answers from pupils as the demonstration proceeds gradually in stages.

By the help of this method, the student himself makes observation and acquires permanent and true knowledge. The student makes observations of nature in gardens, homes, in the groups, in the lab at schools and acquires firsthand knowledge. The teacher only encourages to make observations and students act accordingly.

Characteristics

¨      This method helps students to seek, think, give logic and to convey their thoughts independently

¨      The students are able to learn the similarities and dissimilarities of objects clearly and easily

¨      The work of the teacher is made easy

¨      The acquired knowledge is from natural resources and is thus permanent

¨      Develops the interest of the students in the subjects

Advantages

• Much matter can be covered in a short time
• Much time and energy of pupils and teacher is saved
• Only one set of apparatus is required , so it is economical
• Delicate and dangerous experiments which requires delicate manipulations can be performed by the teacher only with pupils as active observers
• Demonstration will stimulate the thoughts of pupil
• By the expression of the pupils, the method of delivery of lecture could be varied to suit  the needs of the learner

Precautions

• All the aids must be arranged in the order in which they are to be used
• The experiments must be simple and effective and must not take a long time
• The simple experiments should be chosen in preference to complicated ones
• When effects are of small magnitude, they must be shown on a magnified scale, with suitable aids
• Any demonstration made must be with a purpose and the definite objective clearly stated
• All the pupil should be able to see the demonstration
• Pupils also may be made to assist in the demonstration

Common errors in good demonstration

• The apparatus may not be ready for use
• The teacher may not be able to link demonstration with subject matter
• Black board may not be properly used
• The language used may be difficult
• Questions may not be of the right type
• The teachet may not be able ti fix the attention of students

Demerits

·         Students are devoid of doing practical work

·         It seems that all students see same facts but it does not mean thay follow it

            This method can prove to be the best method if the teacher takes active participation of students.

Suggestions

¨      Prior to encourage the students for observation, the teacher himself should check and observe things properly

¨      Interest and curiosity should be developed in students prior to making observations

¨      The studennts should be given full freedom during observaion

¨      As an when required the teacher should pinpoint and put up questions

Project method

·         This method is based on the principle of learning by doing, and learning by living.

·         In this method, school curriculum and contents of studies are considered from pupil’s point of view

·         It also illustrates problem solving method

·         It is a pupil centered method

·         The students work out problems selected by themselves, investigate them and solve them in groups or individually

·         The teacher act as a guide and instructor

Definition

“A project is a problematic act carried to completion in its natural setting” – Stevenson

“A project is a whole-hearted purposeful activity proceeding in social environment”

–        Kilpatrick

“It is a unit of activity in which pupils are made responsible for planning and purposing”

-          Parker

Steps involved in a Project

1.      Providing a situation to propose a project

Many opportunities should be given to students to express their ideas and to have discussions among themselves. While choosing a problem the teacher should know that it is real need of students.

2.      Planning

The whole project should be planned with common discussions between students and teacher. Every student should be encouraged to take part in discussion.

3.      Executing

Work should be distributed according to age, interest and ability of every student. The teacher should see that every child is involved in the completion of the project.

4.      Evaluating

When the project is complete, students should have a discussion over it with the help of teacher. Deficiencies and weak points should be discussed.

5.      Recording

The complete record of the project should be kept i.e. how they planned, what were their duties, to whom they were assigned, how they discussed the project, the solutions and the short-comings were recorded.

Merits

·         It is based on three laws of learning i.e. law of readiness, law  of exercise, law of effect

·         It develops among students self confidence

·         Correlation of various subjects is achieved

·         Problem solving method is stressed

·         Learning travels from hand to head and is therefore retained for a longer time

Demerits

·         It is time consuming

·         Work load on teacher is increased a lot

·         There is no provision for drill and practice

·         It is expensive

Criteria of selecting a project

·         It should have definite educational value

·         It should have according to need and ability of students

·         It should be selected by students

·         It should provide purposeful activity

·         It should be challenging

Role of the teacher

·         The teacher should act as a friend and a guide

·         The teacher should provide work to every child

·         Freedom of thought and work should be provided

·         The teacher should see that pupils do not lose interest in the project

·         The teacher should suggest books for study

Analytic method

·         Analysis means breaking up of subject matter

·         It starts from unknown to known facts

·         This method helps to break the complex problem into simpler ones

·         The students by this method develop the ability to attack upon the problem and analyze it into simpler form

·         The spirit of investigation and critical reasoning is developed by this method

·         It increases individual thinking

·         New facts are discovered by the objective approach of students

·         It is scientific approach to learning

·         This method is formational. It helps to develop some skills among the students

Merits

·         This is an objective method, so no doubts are left in the minds of the students.

·         The students develop original thinking and reasoning. The spirit of inquiry is inculcated.

·         It develops practical abilities among students.

·         It develops democratic atmosphere as students discover the facts and the teacher acts as their guide and friend.

·         It decreases the possibilities of rote memorization.

·         There is always relationship between the student and the teacher.

·         It makes student active participant in teaching learning process.

Demerits

·         It demands too much from the students

·         It is suitable for small children.

·         It is a lengthy method. The whole syllabus cannot be covered by this method. It involves trial and error.

Synthetic Method

·         It binds different known facts into unknown facts.

·         It leads from known to unknown facts

Merits

·         It is concise and fast method. The syllabus can easily be covered by this method.

·         Known facts are displayed

·         It can be used even for small children

·         It requires memorization

·         No trial or error is there as there is no objective approach

·         It does not demand much from the students

Demerits

·         It develops many doubts in the minds of the students

·         It does not develop the ability to investigate and attack a problem or individual learning

·         It is not a scientific way of learning

·         It encourages rote memorization

·         Intimate teacher student relationship is not developed

·         The students remain inactive

Scientific method or Problem solving method

Any method of solving a problem systematically and scientifically may be called scientific.

Scientific method refers to a techniques for investigating phenomena, acquiring new knowledge, or correcting and integrating previous knowledge. To be termed scientific, a method of inquiry must be used.

A scientific method consists of the collection of data through observation and experimentation, and the formulation and testing of hypotheses.

Steps in Problem solving:

 (1) Ability 'to sense the problem and emergence of problem:­

• This arises due to students reading of lessons, their interest during teacher's discussions in the class, through field trips or by seeing film.
• At this stage the teacher can raise a problem by providing situation.
• It should be however, confirmed by the teacher.
• That problem is purposeful and is, according to the need and requirements of students; availability of material relevant to the problem should also be considered.
• It should be from majority of students' side and better if it fits into curriculum.

(2) Defining the problem:

§  Here the students need much of teacher's help, as children may find it difficult to define the problem themselves.

§  Different statements can be given about it.

§  The most essential feature of the defining of problem is that students should understand the problem and grasp it.

(3) Collecting the data:

• When the students have defined the problem they know the possible solution.
• Now the teacher should help the students to collect the relevant data.
• They may have to read extra books, draw charts, prepare models, make field trips.
• They can discuss it with experts.
• It should be by observation, study and experiment.

(4) Interpreting the data:

• When the students have collected the data, they have now to eliminate unnecessary material.
• This is an important and bit difficult step and it is possible only if the students do not divert their attention from the main problem.
• This step involves thinking and reasoning
• Judgement should not be given till sufficient data are collected and organized in a systematic way.
• The teacher should prepare the students in such a way that they do not quickly jump to conclusion.

(5) Consideration of evidence leading to formation of conclusions:

• After the data are collected and organized, the students should move towards final solutions.
• The teacher should see that students should complete this step by their essential thinking.
• Now individual differences will appear as some bright students will find solution easily whereas others may take longer time.

(6) Testing Conclusions or verification of solution

• The results are to be verified to prove their correctness.
• This can be done by applying the results to other situations or some demonstration can be done by the teacher.

However, the scientific method involves the following steps:

• Sensing the problem.
• Defining the problem.
• Analyzing the problem.
• Collecting relevant data concerning the problem.
• Interpreting the data.
• Formulating the hypothesis,
• Selecting and testing the most likely hypothesis
• Drawing conclusion, to make generalization
• Application of the final results to the new situation

Procedures of Problem Solving

There are the following two procedures of problem-solving:

                 (i).      The inductive approach

               (ii).      The deductive approach

(i). The inductive approach

            This method requires the  study and careful examination of particular facts to deduce a general principle.

Pupils are actively enaged in thinking for themselves and discovered new rule, generalization etc.

The students draw generalization from particular principles, from observed rules and from instances.

Steps involved

1.Sensing the problem

            The pupils define the problem

2.Analysing the situation

            The situation is analysed and relevant information is sought. It may require book study, references, making field trips etc.

3.Organising information

            Under the guidance of the teacher the pupils organise the information collected

4.Framing solution

            The children frame possible solutions. The teacher acts as guide.

5.Eliminating

            Possible solutions are kept and others are eliminated

6.Verification

            The solutions are applied to the situation and results are checked. The procedure is related until a correct solution is discovered.

Merits

• It promotes mental ability
• The pupils actively participates in the learning process
• Self learning is promoted
• Children learns to solve the problem, attack them and plan them to reach the generalisation.
• The process gives the students opportunity to be self dependent

Demerits

• It is an incomplete method
• It is slow and a lengthy method

(ii). The deductive approach

            It suggests the verification of general principles, rules, definitions already learnt. It should be noted that this method has two functions to perform:

• Drawing inferences from general principles studied
• Explainign particular facts with the help of general principles, laws etc.

Steps

The following steps are used in it

1.Understanding the problem

            The pupils understand the problem. They define and formulate it

2. Collecting information

            The pupils gather information about the problem

3. Reviewing

            Principles, generalizations are reviewed to find facts which may be applied to find a suitble solution, conclusion or result.

4.Drawing inferences

            The principle, rule or generalization is applied to the case and inferences are drawn that the problem falls under such and such principle.

5.Verification

The principle is applied to the case. If it solves the problem, it is accepted otherwise the procedure is repeated to find the correct one.

Merits

• Teacher’s work is simplified. He gives general principles and the students have to verify them
• This is fast and economical
• This is suitable for small children who cannot prove the facts by themselves
• There is no danger of arriving at wrong and incomplete results

Demerits

• As ready made material is supplied, children are deprived of exploring the facts themselves
• It encourages memorisation
• Self confidence is not encoureged
• It does not motivate the students as facts are not found by them

 Advantages of the problem solving method

·         The students discover new knowledge

·         They learn how to act in a new situation

·         They learn how to make certain things

·         They learn how to get out of a difficult situation

·         They learn to verify opinion

·         It provides opportunity to satisfy their curiosity

·         They become able to limit and define problems

·         They learn to invent new devices

·         They learn to create new ideas

·         It develops the habit of extra study

·         It takes into account the indicidual difference